History of public administration Essay Example for Free

History of public administration Essay Glossary Bibliography Biographical Sketch Summary Historical accounts of African public administration often highlight the colonial setting and usually overlook pre-colonial Africa. The African civil service has its roots in precolonial institutions on which European powers relied to build the colonial state and consolidate their administration. Thus, this chapter analyzes the development of African administration from the pre-colonial era up to the present. The first section discusses the pre-colonial period. The colonial system constitutes the second section. The third section deals with the post-colonial period and discusses some problems associated with African administration. 1. The Pre-Colonial Period: From the Ashes of Pharaohs to the Berlin Conference At the end of the prehistoric period (10 000 BC), some African nomadic bands began to settle more permanently in villages along the Nile River to develop the political foundation of ancient Egypt. As these early farmers increased their mastery over soil and animal life, irrigation became a key development strategy to increase food production, which in turn multiplied their populations. Eventually, different villages came to recognize their common interests, to coordinate their efforts and broaden community linkages. People from different communities joined together through confederation or conquest for purposes of commerce or defense, and developed African  ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC POLICY – Vol. I Development of African Administration: Pre-Colonial Times and since Emizet F. Kisangani empires, kingdoms, and chieftaincies. Two types of systems, hierarchical political systems and horizontal or acephalous societies, developed to help generate stable communities and foster prosperity. U SA NE M SC PL O E – C EO H AP LS TE S R S Stateless societies were small political entities and had no bureaucracies as they were mostly based on kinship. Hierarchical societies, however, had bureaucracies to carry out certain functions such as collecting taxes, supervising ceremonies, entertaining dignitaries, and compelling people to do the rulers’ bidding. These polities, which evolved before the arrival of Europeans in Africa, were either centralized or decentralized political entities presided over by emperors, kings, chiefs, or military commanders. The following analysis covers the first hierarchical form of rule that emerged some three millennia BC in ancient Egypt, followed by a brief overview of Medieval Africa. The final sub-section discusses the African administration up to the Berlin Conference in 1884-1885. 1. 1. Ancient Civilization of Africa: The Case of Egypt Around 3300 BC, farming lineages along the Nile Valley joined together as villages to increase production of food and to defend themselves against outsiders. From these villages regional confederations of Upper and Lower Egypt developed. By 3100 BC, a central authority emerged and unified these confederations under the rule of divine pharaohs. From 2700 to 2181, six dynasties succeeded each other to form the Old Kingdom. A century and a half of civil war and provincial rivalries gave rise to the First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdoms that ruled Egypt from 2080 to 1640 BC. The Middle Kingdom was replaced by the Second Intermediate Period and the New Kingdom from 1570 to 1090 BC. Three dynasties (18th through 20th) ruled in the New Kingdom and the Third Intermediate Period began around 1089 BC with the Kushite Kings. The Egyptian empire was multinational consequent to the conquest of foreign nations. The Old and Middle Kingdoms were highly centralized and ruled by â€Å"god-kings† or pharaohs. With its capital at Memphis, the Old Kingdom was divided into provinces. Next to the king was the vizier, the administrative hand of the king, who was also in charge of day to day administrative, fiscal, and judicial matters. Although very few administrative documents have survived, court documents provide a glimpse of the Egyptian bureaucracy. Three basic administrative divisions existed: the Department of the Head of the South, the Office of Government Labor, and the Treasury. The Palermo Stone provides further evidence of administrative structure in the collection of revenue and in the assessment of Egyptian wealth. On the Stone was documented a biennial administrative census that left nothing unaccounted for, so that taxes could be assessed even on the basis of canals, lakes, wells, and trees of an estate. The system consisted of a hierarchical structure with diverse administrative agencies spreading throughout the kingdom for effective management. Another governmental task was the administration of justice, on which was founded the concept of ma‘at (or justice), whereby some high priests bore the title of priest of Ma‘at. In addition to the capital city of Memphis, there were other towns of importance that  ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC POLICY – Vol. I Development of African Administration: Pre-Colonial Times and since Emizet F. Kisangani made up provinces headed by town governors, who were also chief priests in charge of temple revenue in many parts of Ancient Egypt. Provincial temples were the subject of central government regulations to avoid any strong power at the provincial level. However, during the first intermediate period, the office of governor in charge of civil affairs became the office of chief priest. U SA NE M SC PL O E – C EO H AP LS TE S R S The role of bureaucracy in these early kingdoms was to facilitate the transfer of resources from different provinces to the king’s court. If early administrations were in charge of maintaining irrigation and agricultural output, later administrations seemed to be more involved in supervising construction work and wealth transfer. The proliferation of these later types of bureaucracies, at the expense of those that used to maintain the agricultural system, would probably have produced pressures on the agricultural output and might have been the first sign of political decay in Ancient Egypt. The centralized system itself between the king, court officers, and ambitious governors may also have led to the same result. The New Kingdom and the Third Intermediate Period generated a great mass of documentation about Egyptian political and administrative life. The form of government remained the same, based on divine kingship. The government always stressed the religious function of the political system. Under the auspices of Gods, the government was expected to maintain the integrity of Egyptian territory and expand its frontiers. The most important function of the government was to create civic and individual security, and the vizier carried out the duty of ensuring that law and regulations were obeyed throughout the bureaucracy. The society was divided into hierarchical stratifications with the king at the top, a small group of high-ranking and wealthy officials next, and a much larger group of bureaucrats (scribes), priests, soldiers, stable masters, citizens, cultivators, and herdsmen filling the bottom layer. The Egyptian political system under the New Kingdom and the Third Intermediate Period was divided into an internal government and a government of conquests. Internally, the civil government was run by two viziers (northern and southern), overseer of the granaries of upper and lower Egypt, and the chief taxing master. The two viziers also supervised the overseer of the treasury and lower level officials in charge of bureaucracy, judiciary, and the police. At the lowest level of the administrative hierarchy were the chiefs, town mayors, and councils. The government of conquests had several governors who supervised vassal kings and their battalion commanders. Most of the Northern Lands were small and scattered, and under the direct control of various battalion commanders. The goal of this decentralization scheme was to obstruct anyone from controlling a large estate and challenging the king’s power. The governor of the Southern Lands was the Viceroy of Kush and his role became important internally at the end of the Twentieth Dynasty. He also supervised two deputies and a battalion commander. Military forces were all centralized under one commander. In addition to these administrative entities, there existed a religious government hierarchy, with the â€Å"overseer of prophets† at the top, a position held at various times by a vizier who was the head of two high priests. Below them was the priesthood bureaucracy. The corps of the centralized system was maintained by a small group of powerful officials. They headed each department and reported directly to the king who appointed  ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC POLICY – Vol. I Development of African Administration: Pre-Colonial Times and since Emizet F. Kisangani and removed them. The bureaucracy consisted of a group of educated scribes whose role consisted of collecting taxes, conducting censuses, regulating agriculture, and administering justice and law with a small police force. A professional army was divided into various units, each with its own hierarchy of officers. U SA NE M SC PL O E – C EO H AP LS TE S R S Pressures on land and rising inflation may have been politically significant in later days of the New Kingdom, though bureaucratic inefficiency and abuse of power were probably the main causes of economic collapse. Besides the deterioration of administrative integrity, another major cause that weakened the kingship was the changing relationship between the king, civil government, army, and a few powerful families. Some families came to control major economic resources of the state, and the civil service became less susceptible to royal control. In addition, the kings’ tours of their provinces became less frequent, and royal princes and other deputies carried out religious rites formerly performed by the kings. During the ensuing Third Intermediate Period (1069 664 BC), Egypt was in perpetual crisis and the Egyptian civilization disappeared after the Roman conquest around 30 BC. In summary, the evolution of Ancient Egypt is characterized by the rise and fall of large scale governments that reflect alternating periods of unification and fragmentation. 1. 2. Medieval Africa Medieval Africa was different from the Ancient in several respects. First, Medieval leaders attempted to balance local traditions and regional autonomy in response to their peoples needs by developing and consolidating large-scale kingdoms and empires for purposes of trade or defense. A second difference was the impact of Islam on African societies. Muslims believed that one God (Allah) called on them to undertake jihads (commonly known as holy war against non-believers) when necessary. The most renowned of Africas medieval empires of Mali, Songhay and Morocco rose to the highest stages of their international influence with Islam as the imperial religion. Other medieval African kingdoms and empires developed indigenous political ideologies based on regional customs and beliefs, while Coptic Christianity remained the official state religion in the Abyssinian kingdom of medieval Ethiopia. In 969 A. D. , Muslims from the Maghreb conquered Egypt and established the Fatimid Dynasty in Cairo (c. 970-1170 A. D. ), which was highly hierarchical and whose military was highly professionalized. This strict hierarchy of officials, and the controlling powers of the vizier, left room neither for the autonomous tendencies of provincial governors nor for the growth of widespread corruption. Tolerant of other religions, the system let Copts and Jews occupy prestigious positions in the administration. The centralized administration controlled tax revenues, the payment of troops, and the allocation of military fiefs. The Fatimid administration was in charge of regulating and distributing the waters of the Nile River. Dams and canals were regularly repaired and improved; even an occasional period of low water did not greatly damage the general economic situation. When the Fatimid rule in Egypt was threatened by European Christian Crusaders (c. 1170), it was Egypts professional soldiers, or Mamluks (slave-soldier), who rallied behind Saladin to defeat the Crusaders. He then established a new Mamluk Dynasty in  ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC POLICY – Vol. I Development of African Administration: Pre-Colonial Times and since Emizet F. Kisangani Cairo from 1171 to1517. By the thirteenth century, the institution of the slave-soldiers became an integral part of the political and social system in many Muslim countries. The Mamluk oligarchy never accepted in its ranks someone who was not a slave soldier, so that the military establishment not only remained hierarchical, but also continued to be a caste dominated by slave soldiers. U SA NE M SC PL O E – C EO H AP LS TE S R S Most Mamluk caliphates were divided into military fiefs centralized under one single Caliph. The basic administrative entity was the village because the Mamluk dynasty obtained most of its revenues from landed estates. A major innovation to ensure payment was that the peasants were prohibited from leaving their villages without permission. In addition to land taxes, the Mamluk caliphates drew their revenues from customs duties, based on ad valorem and the religion of the merchants, so that Christian importers had to pay taxes as high as 30%, whereas Muslim importers paid only 10%. This canonical tax was abolished under the reform of 1316. Several other kingdoms, such as Ghana and Mali, developed in Medieval Western Sudan. But the best known was the Kingdom of Songhay founded around the trading town of Gao (c. 1000 A. D. ). The Songhay Kingdom broke away from Mali and subsequently arose to become the third great empire in the medieval western Sudan (c. 1460-1590). Songhays founding emperor, Sunni Ali, established imperial authority northward into the Sahara in order to control international trade routes and valuable deposits of rock salt (which was mined and cut into large blocks to be traded for gold). Following Ali’s death, one of his generals, Muhammad Toure, overthrew the legitimate heir, and embarked on a hajj to Mecca. In 1496 he returned to wage jihad against nonMuslims. He conquered new territories and ruled over Songhays expanded empire as Caliph of West Africa. Under Muhammads authority (1493-1528), Songhay, especially the towns of Timbuktu and Jenne, rose to become one of the medieval worlds largest multinational empires. The administrative system was open enough to provide lower level citizens some type of upward social mobility. The empire was highly decentralized and Islam was used as a tool to assimilate different communities. Different categories of slaves cultivated fields, constructed adobe buildings and mosques, acted as porters, or served as soldiers and officials in the imperial government. Some of the latter rose through government and military bureaucracies by virtue of meritorious work to achieve high positions of administrative responsibility, as did soldier Muhammad Toure, when he rose by military merit to become a general and then became the emperor of Songhay. As emperor of Songhay, Muhammad established effective central supervision over provincial governors. He also reformed Songhays imperial government so that merit (rather than birth) became the principal criterion for advancement in bureaucracy. Eventually, after Muhammad became blind and was deposed in 1528, Songhays trans-Saharan trade declined. This was also partly due to competition from European sea traders along the West African Atlantic coast, which undercut the trans-Saharan gold trade. After severe political crises of succession disputes, rebellions and civil war that Songhay emperors faced during the 1580s, their imperial army was decisively defeated by Moroccos elite musketeers at the Battle of Tondibi in 1591. Other kingdoms and chieftaincies came up throughout Central, Eastern and Southern  ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC POLICY – Vol. I Development of African Administration: Pre-Colonial Times and since Emizet F. Kisangani Africa. Although some of these polities were decentralized or confederated, most of them developed as centralized systems where the king or the chief represented the top, followed by the house of the king or an inner circle of advisors, and finally the Council of Elders as the legislative branch. The army and bureaucrats were in charge of maintaining security and law, collecting taxes, and conducting censuses. In most polities, age was a major social feature of stratification, while in other areas the system was meritocractic. 1. 3. Beyond the Medieval Era to the Nineteenth Century U SA NE M SC PL O E – C EO H AP LS TE S R S In the late 1500s and through the 1700s, Europeans and Arabs introduced new weapons and made new demands for captives of war throughout Africa to meet the demands of a growing international slave trade. Consequently, many of Africa’s previous patterns of political and economic growth were disrupted, even though many of the great traditions of medieval African politics and administration continued to guide their evolution. As African kingdoms and empires continued to develop, and trade between coastal cities and interior regions expanded throughout the continent, various African peoples established political confederations based on religious ideology, commercial linkages and/or military authority. Such confederations were committed to establishing broader nationalist ideologies, promoting literacy and advancement by merit, expanding both regional and international commerce, and undertaking significant administrative and military reforms. The first great reformer and leader in North Africa was an Ottoman military commander, Muhammad Ali (1805-1848). He established the first secular schools, engineering and medical colleges, modern factories, modern printing presses, and stateowned textile and munitions factories. His successors continued his policies of borrowing foreign capital and building projects, such as the Suez Canal that was completed in 1869. In the west, the original Asante confederation, established by seven clans near the city of Kumasi (in modern day Ghana), united around the symbolic Golden Stool of their ruler Asante-Hene. This confederation built roads and promoted agriculture, commerce, industry and education through self-help and self-reliance. The Asante emperors implemented several modernization policies in administration that included promoting advancement by merit and the development of state enterprise through public investment. By 1874, the British imperial army defeated the Asante army and annexed the Fante territories into their Gold Coast colony. In East Africa (c. 1800-1885), there was also a movement toward centralization of authority and broadened commercial linkages throughout the region, from Ethiopia’s Highlands to the Limpopo River in Southern Africa. In the first half of the nineteenth century, however, Africa continued to be significantly disrupted by international trade in slaves, even as new Euro-American markets began to demand large imports of such African-based commodities as palm oil, cotton, peanuts, and ivory. By mid-century, European merchants realized that Africans could produce such valuable exports more efficiently and humanely by working in their own countries than by working as slaves in the Americas. Many other nineteenth century African nations were consciously modernizing their various political economies and shifting to regional confederacies,

Ernest Sosa: Externalism :: essays research papers

Ernest Sosa: Externalism Ernest Sosa likes externalism. He thinks that it is intuitively correct. But he must and does agree that it must be clarified in order to avoid certain problems. So, his mission in this paper is to first define what he calls "Generic Reliabilism," then to show how it is susceptible to certain objections, then to present a modified version of it, and to show that this new version is, in general, better than its predecessor. Let us look at his argument. First, we get the usual definition of generic reliabilism: S is justified in his belief that p at t if the belief is produced by some faculty that usually produces true beliefs. Then, we get a couple of Alvin Goldman's notions of justification with Sosa's revisions. A belief is strongly justified iff it is well formed, and by means of a truth conducive process. A belief is weakly justified iff it is "blameless" (not the result of an intentional mistake?) but ill-formed, and the believer is not aware that the belief is ill- formed. A belief is superweakly justified iff the process that produces the belief is unreliable but the subject did not intentionally come to hold the belief because it was acquired unreliably. And, finally, a belief has strong meta-justification iff the subject neither believes that nor can determine if the belief is ill-formed (hence the "meta-" prefix), and the subject is aware of the process by which he got the belief and that the process is reliable. OK, seems reasonable enough. But, Sosa points out, there are a couple of scenarios (actually, three, but Sosa concentrates mainly on the two listed below) in which these conceptions of justification just do not work. The "new evil demon" problem takes a couple of forms in the article, but what it amounts to is that if a person S attains beliefs through something other than his usual faculties (e.g. senses, reasoning, etc.) like evil demons or random neurological stimulators, or whatever, then that person's beliefs are not attained through a reliable process (we are assuming that demons are, as usual, not benevolent bearers of truth). But, we do not want to say, or at least Sosa doesn't, that the deceived believer is completely unjustified in his beliefs; so, what level of justification do we assign to his situation? If, by some amazing coincidence, the random processes or demons generate a consistent and coherent set of beliefs, then we can say that the subject is weakly and meta- justified. But, t hat situation is not very likely, and thus we need the notion of superweak

Intercultural Communications Essay

Whale Rider is a contemporary fairy film, which depicts our celebration to our spiritual bond together with our natural environment. In particular it shows the celebration of our spiritual bond with the ocean, and its creatures the whales. It has its basis on a Maori legend, transcends local space and time. The film evokes concerns as to the relationship that exists between human with the natural world. It also depicts the role women play in the spiritual traditions as can be seen in the story of Pai (Keisha Castle Hughes) who is eleven years old. The tale takes place within the heart of Maori tribe. It is filmed on authentic tribal property in Whangara on the east coast of New Zealand North Island. There is participation of the Ngati Konohi elders and other members of the tribe. Niki Caro who is the screenwriter lived within the tribe before the film was released (Farrell, 299-300). He created a respectful and exuberant depiction of a story that is unique. From the beginning of the film the viewer is immersed in Pai’s world, with active imagination that she has, her child like realm and also the ageless wisdom, which corresponds to the call of ancient whales. This is what draws her to be able to fulfill her destiny. Her destiny has its roots in conflict and there is demand for intuitive wisdom, visionary actions and also a brave wisdom to be able to accomplish this destiny. Her mother and her twin brother passed away during childbirth. She was named after Paikea who was a legendary ancestor who arrived in New Zealand carried on back of a whale. Pai father left his community with great grief and feeling incapable to offer a son who would continue succession of chiefs. He starts a new life by undertaking a course in fine arts in Germany. Pai is taken care of by her grand parents. In the process there is a strong bond that is formed between Pai and her grandfather Pako. The grandfather watches her and realized that she had great interest to change the traditional ways (Reinhardt, pg 10-11). The grandfather has the aim to preserve the succession of the tribe and makes an appointment of a male to replace him. Despite this Pako has to make struggles in order to keep the tradition of the society alive. There is social and spiritual crisis in the society. There is also disintegration of the community because there is no one to succeed him in the society. In order to be able to revive the ancient lore he starts a school where boys are taught native teachings on martial arts. Girls and women are not allowed to attend this school. However, Pai breaks this traditional because of the irresistible force by her many attempts to participate the classes which were intended to be attended by male warriors. The hopes by Pako to find the next leader weakens as all the boys fail in their final test. Pai is protected by her grandmother because of her rebellious character. The grandmother recognizes her inborn affinity with the ancient myths that existed in the society. There is a beautiful scene which depicts the wise woman and the girl sitting gazing on the ocean. The ocean is lit by the radiance of the full moon (Rountree, pg 98-100). This shows the mysteries that women have in their spirituality and also reflects the special bond that women have with the moon and the sea. All through the film the ocean looks as an animated entity shimmering in rich shades of blue, grey and turquoise. It reflects the sky, the moonlight, sunlight a mediating body that connects the people with their spiritual origins. The whales and the ocean depict the fusion of nature and spirit. Therefore, when a group of whales is washed near the shore their destiny is metaphorically connected with the survival of the tribe. As can be seen from the film the conservatism and rigidity of the male dominated traditions makes the tribe to be disintegrated. Even with the support of his people Pako is cannot save the whales. There is mourning of the revered creatures and tribes mythical lifeline. There is no one in from the tribe who dares to envision what is to come in future. The luxurious photography which is taken underwater and enhanced by digital effects and models together with the energizing rhythms of performance, editing and sounds depicts the transformation of Pai into a whale rider. Pai’s body works together with the ancient creature. His soul makes communication with creature’s awareness. She is able to awaken the dying whale ride ion its back and guides the herd to go back to the depths of the ocean. She entrusts her fate to the ocean. She does not fear to die and she is guided by an instinct and insight beyond time. The whales and the ocean responds by bringing Pai back to the shores of the ocean with the tide. There is a new leader who has been born and there is also beginning of a new era. Whale Rider provides a powerful message of hope and watching this film provides a healing experience. It is a unique cinematic vision which gives an impression to the creative potential of the female spirit. The film depicts the theme of female empowerment in an ordinary way but the way that the context in which it is depicted is unique. Just like many tribal societies the Maoris are patriarchal. In this society the thought of a female leader is not thinkable, and also goes against the traditions of the society. The film reveals what might happen if a girl appear to have been talented with mystical capabilities of becoming a leader or a chief in that kind of a society. The film provides a more positive point of view showing that despite the fact that change is necessary it is not supposed to destroy culture and tradition of a society. Pai aim is not to destroy the customs and traditions of the society which have existed for more than one thousand years but to reshape it and continues with the same traditions and customs. Leonard, pg 15-22). The film looks like a study of sociology but this is only its background. The film is uplifting as it shows a girl who defies any odds to be able to achieve her goals. There is use of humor in order to keep the tone of the overall film light although there are some moments of deeper heartfelt pathos. The relationships and characters in the film are three dimensional. The most rewarding relationship in this film is that of Pai and her grandfather. This is shown especially at the start of the film where we see that the grandfather has genuine care for her granddaughter. For the daughter all what she wants is to earn respect from the grandfather. This is depicted as she gives a speech dedicated to her grandfather. Keisha is just as wonderful as Pai. This is because she shows unflagging spirit and great determination. The afro mentioned speech is the best scene shown by the actress. She presents the speech in an amazing way and even sheds tears. Koro is depicted as a stern and humorless man but not a villain. He is depicted as a man of strong values who cannot let go the rigidity of his upbringing (Reinhardt, pg 10-11). When Koro starts a new school in order to supplement the secular education of the young boys, Pai wishes to join the school too but she is rebuffed harshly in her attempts. She shows depth of character as she simultaneously quest for equality. She is also aware that her grandfather would not be willing to make her acquire her desires because of his strong attachment to patriarchal values. Her close relationship with her grandmother who lived a life that is universally recognizable to Americans provides warmth and support to Pai in her quests for equality (Leonard, pg 15-22). The film has is thrilling as it unfolds seamingly with Maori music and rituals which bridges the spoken language. Whale Rider never becomes a saccharine because it is partly a straight tale and also partly a gripping mystical fable. Just like in many modern films the music and the Maori songs complement but do not compete with the dialogue which is a welcome change in films. The film whale rider has a different and a more powerful approach. In the film there are no whites and there are only children t-shirts and some music which comes from a boom box that suggest the encroaching force of the majority who had control (Rountree, pg 98-99).

The Success of the New Deal in Solving the Problems Caused...

The Success of the New Deal in Solving the Problems Caused by the Great Depression Introduction- In the late 1920’s and early 1930’s the whole of America was in a deep depression and was in desperate need of help. When Franklin D Roosevelt was elected president of USA he came up with the plan of â€Å"the new deal† this was a planned guideline to regenerate money and the high standards of living the Americans once had not so long ago. He introduced 5 major organisations to restructure the American way of life they were now facing; these were the F.E.R.A, C.C.C, A.A.A, T.V.A and the N.R.A. In this essay I am going to study if â€Å"the new deal† was successful up to 1941. During the Great Depression, when†¦show more content†¦He asked Congress to create â€Å"a corporation clothed with the power of government but possessed of the flexibility and initiative of a private enterprise.† On May 18, 1933, Congress passed the TVA act. Right from the start, TVA established a unique problem-solving approach to fulfilling its mission-integrated resource management. Each issue TVA faced—whether it was power production, navigation, flood control, malaria prevention, reforestation, or erosion control—was studied in its broadest context. The N.R.A was an act called for industrial self-regulation and declared that codes of fair competition-for the protection of consumers, competitors, and employers-were to be drafted for the various industries of the country and were to be subject to public hearings. The administration was empowered to make voluntary agreements dealing with hours of work, rates of pay, and the fixing of prices. The AAA paid farmers not to grow crops and not to produce dairy produce such as milk and butter. It also paid them not to raise pigs and lambs. The money to pay the farmers for cutting back production of about 30% was raised by a tax on companies that bought the farm products and processed them into food and clothing. The AAA also became involved in trying to help farmers destroyed by the creation of the dust bowl in 1934. The Federal Emergency Relief Administration, or FERA, is a governmentShow MoreRelatedThe Great Depression Trademarks America1544 Words   |  7 Pages The Great Depression trademarks America at its all-time historical down point. In FDR’s Folly, Powell spotlights the presidency of Franklin Delano Roosevelt, astronomical levels of unemployment, as well as the New Deal program developed to combat the Great Depression. Powell, who was born and educated in London, earned a master’s degree in history and he clearly demonstrates his views to the reader. 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